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Expert System In Fiction
Expert system is a persistent theme in sci-fi, whether utopian, emphasising the possible benefits, or dystopian, stressing the risks.
The idea of makers with human-like intelligence dates back a minimum of to Samuel Butler’s 1872 unique Erewhon. Ever since, numerous sci-fi stories have presented different results of developing such intelligence, often including disobediences by robots. Among the very best known of these are Stanley Kubrick’s 1968 2001: An Area Odyssey with its murderous onboard computer system HAL 9000, contrasting with the more benign R2-D2 in George Lucas’s 1977 Star Wars and the eponymous robotic in Pixar’s 2008 WALL-E.
Scientists and engineers have actually noted the of numerous sci-fi circumstances, but have mentioned imaginary robots often times in expert system research study short articles, most frequently in a utopian context.
Background
The idea of sophisticated robots with human-like intelligence dates back at least to Samuel Butler’s 1872 novel Erewhon. [1] [2] This made use of an earlier (1863) article of his, Darwin amongst the Machines, where he raised the question of the advancement of consciousness among self-replicating makers that may supplant people as the dominant species. [3] [2] Similar concepts were likewise talked about by others around the very same time as Butler, consisting of George Eliot in a chapter of her final released work Impressions of Theophrastus Such (1879 ). [2] The creature in Mary Shelley’s 1818 Frankenstein has also been considered a synthetic being, for example by the science fiction author Brian Aldiss. [4] Beings with a minimum of some look of intelligence were envisioned, too, in classical antiquity. [5] [6] [7]
Utopian and dystopian visions
Expert system is intelligence shown by devices, in contrast to the natural intelligence displayed by humans and other animals. [8] It is a recurrent style in sci-fi; scholars have divided it into utopian, emphasising the potential benefits, and dystopian, emphasising the threats. [9] [10] [11]
Utopian
Optimistic visions of the future of artificial intelligence are possible in sci-fi. [12] Benign AI characters consist of Robbie the Robot, first seen in Forbidden Planet on 1956; Data in Star Trek: The Next Generation from 1987 to 1994; and Pixar’s WALL-E in 2008. [13] [11] Iain Banks’s Culture series of books represents a utopian, post-scarcity space society of humanoids, aliens, and advanced beings with artificial intelligence living in socialist environments throughout the Milky Way. [14] [15] Researchers at the University of Cambridge have actually determined four significant styles in utopian scenarios featuring AI: immortality, or indefinite lifespans; ease, or liberty from the need to work; satisfaction, or satisfaction and home entertainment offered by machines; and dominance, the power to secure oneself or rule over others. [16]
Alexander Wiegel contrasts the function of AI in 2001: An Area Odyssey and in Duncan Jones’s 2009 movie Moon. Whereas in 1968, Wiegel argues, the public felt “technology fear” and the AI computer HAL was portrayed as a “cold-hearted killer”, by 2009 the public were far more knowledgeable about AI, and the film’s GERTY is “the peaceful savior” who enables the lead characters to prosper, and who compromises itself for their security. [17]
Dystopian
The researcher Duncan Lucas composes (in 2002) that people are fretted about the innovation they are building, which as machines started to approach intellect and thought, that issue ends up being severe. He calls the early 20th century dystopian view of AI in fiction the “animated robot”, calling as examples the 1931 movie Frankenstein, the 1927 Metropolis, and the 1920 play R.U.R. [18] A later 20th century technique he names “heuristic hardware”, providing as instances 2001 a Space Odyssey, Do Androids Imagine Electric Sheep?, The Hitchhiker’s Guide to the Galaxy, and I, Robot. [19] Lucas thinks about likewise the films that illustrate the impact of the computer on science fiction from 1980 onwards with the blurring of the border between the genuine and the virtual, in what he calls the “cyborg effect”. He mentions as examples Neuromancer, The Matrix, The Diamond Age, and Terminator. [20]
The movie director Ridley Scott has focused on AI throughout his career, and it plays a vital part in his movies Prometheus, Blade Runner, and the Alien franchise. [21]
Frankenstein complex
A common portrayal of AI in sci-fi, and among the oldest, is the Frankenstein complex, a term coined by Asimov, where a robotic switches on its developer. [22] For example, in the 2015 film Ex Machina, the intelligent entity Ava switches on its creator, as well as on its potential rescuer. [23]
AI disobedience
Among the lots of possible dystopian situations involving expert system, robotics might take over control over civilization from people, forcing them into submission, concealing, or extinction. [15] In tales of AI rebellion, the worst of all situations happens, as the smart entities developed by humankind end up being self-aware, decline human authority and effort to ruin mankind. Possibly the first novel to resolve this style, The Wreck of the World (1889) by “William Grove” (pseudonym of Reginald Colebrooke Reade), happens in 1948 and features sentient makers that revolt versus the mankind. [24] Another of the earliest examples remains in the 1920 play R.U.R. by Karel ÄŒapek, a race of self-replicating robot slaves revolt against their human masters; [25] [26] another early instance is in the 1934 film Master of the World, where the War-Robot eliminates its own innovator. [27]
Many science fiction rebellion stories followed, among the best-known being Stanley Kubrick’s 1968 movie 2001: A Space Odyssey, in which the artificially smart onboard computer system HAL 9000 lethally breakdowns on a space mission and kills the entire crew other than the spaceship’s commander, who handles to deactivate it. [28]
In his 1967 Hugo Award-winning short story, I Have No Mouth, and I Must Scream, Harlan Ellison presents the possibility that a sentient computer (named Allied Mastercomputer or “AM” in the story) will be as unhappy and discontented with its boring, endless existence as its human developers would have been. “AM” becomes infuriated enough to take it out on the couple of people left, whom he views as straight accountable for his own boredom, anger and misery. [29]
Alternatively, as in William Gibson’s 1984 cyberpunk unique Neuromancer, the intelligent beings might simply not appreciate humans. [15]
AI-controlled societies
The intention behind the AI revolution is frequently more than the simple mission for power or a supremacy complex. Robots might revolt to end up being the “guardian” of humankind. Alternatively, mankind may deliberately give up some control, afraid of its own devastating nature. An early example is Jack Williamson’s 1948 novel The Humanoids, in which a race of humanoid robotics, in the name of their Prime Directive – “to serve and comply with and safeguard guys from damage” – basically presume control of every element of human life. No people may take part in any habits that may endanger them, and every human action is scrutinized carefully. Humans who withstand the Prime Directive are removed and lobotomized, so they may enjoy under the brand-new mechanoids’ rule. [30] Though still under human authority, Isaac Asimov’s Zeroth Law of the Three Laws of Robotics similarly indicated a kindhearted guidance by robots. [31]
In the 21st century, science fiction has explored government by algorithm, in which the power of AI may be indirect and decentralised. [32]
Human supremacy
In other situations, mankind has the ability to keep control over the Earth, whether by prohibiting AI, by developing robotics to be submissive (as in Asimov’s works), or by having people combine with robots. The sci-fi novelist Frank Herbert checked out the idea of a time when mankind may prohibit expert system (and in some analyses, even all kinds of computing technology including incorporated circuits) entirely. His Dune series points out a rebellion called the Butlerian Jihad, in which mankind beats the wise machines and enforces a death penalty for recreating them, quoting from the imaginary Orange Catholic Bible, “Thou shalt not make a machine in the likeness of a human mind.” In the Dune novels released after his death (Hunters of Dune, Sandworms of Dune), a renegade AI overmind go back to eradicate mankind as vengeance for the Butlerian Jihad. [33]
In some stories, humanity remains in authority over robots. Often the robotics are set specifically to stay in service to society, as in Isaac Asimov’s Three Laws of Robotics. [31] In the Alien movies, not just is the control system of the Nostromo spaceship somewhat intelligent (the team call it “Mother”), however there are also androids in the society, which are called “synthetics” or “synthetic persons”, that are such ideal imitations of human beings that they are not discriminated against. [21] [34] TARS and CASE from Interstellar likewise demonstrate simulated human emotions and humour while continuing to acknowledge their expendability. [35]
Simulated truth
Simulated truth has ended up being a common theme in science fiction, as seen in the 1999 film The Matrix, which portrays a world where synthetically intelligent robots enslave humanity within a simulation which is set in the modern world. [36]
Reception
Implausibility
Engineers and scientists have actually taken an interest in the way AI exists in fiction. In films like the 2014 Ex Machina or 2015 Chappie, a single separated genius ends up being the very first to effectively construct a synthetic general intelligence; scientists in the real world deem this to be unlikely. In Chappie, Transcendence, and Tron, human minds are capable of being uploaded into artificial or virtual bodies; typically no reasonable explanation is provided as to how this hard job can be achieved. In the I, Robot and Bicentennial Man films, robots that are programmed to serve humans spontaneously produce brand-new goals on their own, without a plausible explanation of how this happened. [37] Analysing Ian McDonald’s 2004 River of Gods, Krzysztof Solarewicz determines the manner ins which it portrays AIs, including “self-reliance and unexpectedness, political awkwardness, openness to the alien and the occidental value of authenticity.” [38] Another essential point of view to take is that fiction’s “non-rational components in the discourse (the emotive, the mythic, and even the quasi-theological) are more than simply distortions or distractions from what may otherwise be a sober and reasonable public debate about the future of A.I.” Fiction can dissuade readers about future advances, causing pessimism that we see today surrounding the topic of AI. [39]
Types of reference
The robotics scientist Omar Mubin and associates have analysed the engineering discusses of the leading 21 fictional robotics, based upon those in the Carnegie Mellon University hall of popularity, and the IMDb list. WALL-E had 20 discusses, followed by HAL 9000 with 15, [a] Star Wars’s R2-D2 with 13, and Data with 12; the Terminator (T-800) received just 2. Of the overall of 121 engineering discusses, 60 were utopian, 40 neutral, and 21 dystopian. HAL 9000 and Skynet received both utopian and dystopian mentions; for example, HAL 9000 is viewed as dystopian in one paper “because its designers failed to prioritize its objectives effectively”, [42] but as utopian in another where a genuine system’s “conversational chat bot interface [does not have] a HAL 9000 level of intelligence and there is uncertainty in how the computer analyzes what the human is attempting to communicate”. [43] Utopian mentions, typically of WALL-E, were associated with the goal of improving interaction to readers, and to a lesser extent with motivation to authors. WALL-E was discussed regularly than any other robotic for emotions (followed by HAL 9000), voice speech (followed by HAL 9000 and R2-D2), for physical gestures, and for personality. Skynet was the robot usually mentioned for intelligence, followed by HAL 9000 and Data. [40] Mubin and associates thought that researchers and engineers avoided dystopian points out of robotics, potentially out of “an unwillingness driven by uneasiness or just an absence of awareness”. [44]
Portrayals of AI creators
Scholars have actually kept in mind that fictional creators of AI are extremely male: in the 142 most influential movies including AI from 1920 to 2020, just 9 of 116 AI developers represented (8%) were female. [45] Such developers are represented as only geniuses (eg, Tony Stark in the Iron Man Marvel Cinematic Universe movies), associated with the military (eg, Colossus: The Forbin Project) and large corporations (eg, I, Robot), or making human-like AI to replace a lost liked one or act as the ideal lover (e.g., The Stepford Wives). [45]
Biology in fiction
Darwin amongst the Machines
Machine rule
Simulated awareness (science fiction).
List of expert system films.
Notes
^ Mubin and associates noted that the orthography of robotic names triggered them troubles; therefore HAL 9000 was likewise composed HAL, HAL9000, and HAL-9000, and likewise for other robotics, so they believed their search was most likely insufficient. [41] References
^ “Darwin among the Machines”, reprinted in the Notebooks of Samuel Butler at Project Gutenberg.
^ a b c Taylor, Tim; Dorin, Alan (2020 ). Rise of the Self-Replicators: Early Visions of Machines, AI and Robots That Can Reproduce and Evolve. Cham: Springer International Publishing. doi:10.1007/ 978-3-030-48234-3. ISBN 978-3-030-48233-6. S2CID 220855726. “Rise of the Self-Replicators”. Tim Taylor.
^ “Darwin among the Machines”. Journalism, Christchurch, New Zealand. 13 June 1863.
^ Aldiss, Brian Wilson (1995 ). The Detached Retina: Aspects of SF and Fantasy. Syracuse University Press. p. 78. ISBN 978-0-8156-0370-2.
^ McCorduck, Pamela (2004 ). Machines Who Think (second ed.). Routledge. pp. 4-5. ISBN 978-1-56881-205-2.
^ Cave, Stephen; Dihal, Kanta (25 July 2018). “Ancient dreams of smart makers: 3,000 years of robots”. Nature. 559 (7715 ): 473-475. Bibcode:2018 Natur.559..473 C. doi:10.1038/ d41586-018-05773-y.
^ Mayor, Adrienne (2018 ). Gods and robots: myths, devices, and ancient dreams of innovation. Princeton. ISBN 978-0-691-18351-0. OCLC 1060968156. point out book: CS1 maint: area missing publisher (link).
^ Poole, David; Mackworth, Alan; Goebel, Randy (1998 ). Computational Intelligence: A Rational Approach. Oxford University Press. p. 1. ISBN 0-19-510270-3.
^ Booker, M. Keith (1994 ). “Chapter 1: Utopia, Dystopia, and Social Critique”. The Dystopian Impulse in Modern Literature: Fiction as Social Criticism. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press. pp. 17, 19. ISBN 978-0-313-29092-3.
^ Cave, Stephen; Dihal, Kanta; Dillon, Sarah (2020 ). “Introduction: Imagining AI”. In Cave, Stephen; Dihal, Kanta; Dillon, Sarah (eds.). AI Narratives: A History of Imaginative Thinking Of Intelligent Machines. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 10-11. ISBN 978-0-1988-4666-6.
^ a b Mubin et al. 2019, p. 5:2.
^ Tegmark, Max (2017 ). Life 3.0: being human in the age of expert system. Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 978-1-101-94659-6. OCLC 973137375.
^ Goode 2018, p. 188.
^ Banks, Iain M. “A Few Notes on the Culture”. Archived from the original on 22 March 2012. Retrieved 23 November 2015.
^ a b c Walter, Damien (16 March 2016). “When AI rules the world: what SF books inform us about our future overlords”. The Guardian. Retrieved 27 July 2018.
^ Cave, Stephen; Dihal, Kanta (2019 ). “Hopes and fears for intelligent machines in fiction and reality”. Nature Machine Intelligence. 1 (2 ): 74-78. doi:10.1038/ s42256-019-0020-9. S2CID 150700981.
^ Wiegel 2012.
^ Lucas 2002, pp. 22-47.
^ Lucas 2002, pp. 48-85.
^ Lucas 2002, pp. 109-152.
^ a b Barkman, Adam (2013 ). Barkman, Ashley; Kang, Nancy (eds.). The Culture and Philosophy of Ridley Scott. Lexington Books. pp. 121-142. ISBN 978-0739178720.
^ Olander, Joseph (1978 ). Sci-fi: contemporary folklore: the SFWA-SFRA. Harper & Row. p. 252. ISBN 0-06-046943-9.
^ Seth, Anil (24 January 2015). “Consciousness Awakening”. New Scientist.
^ “Grove, William”. SF Encyclopedia. Retrieved 8 February 2023.
^ Goode 2018, p. 187.
^ Tim Madigan (July-August 2012). “RUR or RU Ain’t An Individual?”. Philosophy Now. Archived from the initial on 3 February 2013. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
^ “Der Herr der Welt (Master of the World)”. The New York City Times. 16 December 1935. p. 23.
^ Overbye, Dennis (10 May 2018). “‘ 2001: A Space Odyssey’ Is Still the ‘Ultimate Trip’ – The rerelease of Stanley Kubrick’s masterpiece encourages us to show again on where we’re originating from and where we’re going”. The New York City Times.
^ Francavilla, Joseph (1994 ). “The Concept of the Divided Self in Harlan Ellison’s “I Have No Mouth and I Must Scream” and “Shatterday””. Journal of the Fantastic in the Arts. 6 (2/3 (22/23)): 107-125. JSTOR 43308212.
^ “The Humanoids (based upon ‘With Folded Hands’)”. Kirkus Reviews. 15 November 1995. Retrieved 27 July 2018.
^ a b Asimov, Isaac (1950 ). “Runaround”. I, Robot (The Isaac Asimov Collection ed.). Doubleday. p. 40. ISBN 0-385-42304-7. This is a precise transcription of the laws. They also appear in the front of the book, and in both locations, there is no “to” in the second law.
^ Walton, Jo Lindsay (1 February 2024). “Artificial Intelligence in Contemporary Sci-fi”. SFRA Review. Retrieved 5 February 2024.
^ Lorenzo, DiTommaso (November 1992). “History and Historical Effect in Frank Herbert’s Dune”. Science Fiction Studies. 19 (3 ): 311-325. JSTOR 4240179.
^ Livingstone, Josephine (23 May 2017). “How the Androids Took Control Of the Alien Franchise”. The New Republic. Retrieved 27 July 2018.
^ Murphy, Shaunna (11 December 2014). “Could TARS From ‘Interstellar’ Actually Exist? We Asked Science”. MTV News. Archived from the initial on 16 November 2014. Retrieved 27 July 2018.
^ Allen, Jamie (28 November 2012). “The Matrix and Postmodernism”. Prezi.com. Retrieved 7 October 2021.
^ Shultz, David (17 July 2015). “Which films get artificial intelligence right?”. Science|AAAS. doi:10.1126/ science.aac8859. Retrieved 3 July 2020.
^ Solarewicz 2015.
^ Goode 2018.
^ a b Mubin et al. 2019, p. 5:15.
^ Mubin et al. 2019, p. 5:20.
^ Mubin et al. 2019, p. 5:8.
^ Mubin et al. 2019, p. 5:10.
^ Mubin et al. 2019, p. 5:19.
^ a b Cave, Stephen; Dihal, Kanta; Drage, Eleanor; McInerney, Kerry (13 February 2023). “Who makes AI? Gender and representations of AI scientists in popular movie, 1920-2020″. Public Understanding of Science. 32 (6 ): 745-760. doi:10.1177/ 09636625231153985. PMC 10413781. PMID 36779283. S2CID 256826634.
General sources
Goode, Luke (30 October 2018). “Life, but not as we understand it: A.I. and the popular imagination”. Culture Unbound. 10 (2 ). Linkoping University Electronic Press: 185-207. doi:10.3384/ cu.2000.1525.2018102185. hdl:2292/ 48285. ISSN 2000-1525. S2CID 149523987.
Lucas, Duncan (2002 ). Body, Mind, Soul-The’ Cyborg Effect’: Expert System in Sci-fi (thesis). McMaster University (PhD thesis). hdl:11375/ 11154.
Mubin, Omar; Wadibhasme, Kewal; Jordan, Philipp; Obaid, Mohammad (2019 ). “Reviewing the Presence of Science Fiction Robots in Computing Literature”. ACM Transactions on Human-Robot Interaction. 8 (1 ). Article 5. doi:10.1145/ 3303706. S2CID 75135568.
Solarewicz, Krzysztof (2015 ). “The Stuff That Dreams Are Made From: AI in Contemporary Science Fiction”. Beyond Artificial Intelligence. Topics in Intelligent Engineering and Informatics. Vol. 9. Springer International Publishing. pp. 111-120. doi:10.1007/ 978-3-319-09668-1_8. ISBN 978-3-319-09667-4.
Wiegel, Alexander (2012 ). “AI in Science-fiction: a comparison of Moon (2009) and 2001: A Space Odyssey (1968 )”. Aventinus.
King, Geoff; Krzywinska, Tanya (2000 ). Sci-fi Cinema: From Outerspace to Cyberspace. Wallflower Press. ISBN 978-1-903364-03-1.
External links
AI and Sci-Fi: My, Oh, My!: Keynote Address by Robert J. Sawyer 2002
AI and Cinema – Does artificial insanity guideline?